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Winters mostly offshore at sea, mainly in low Arctic waters, but some in N boreal zone S to North Sea and Europe (occasionally to Britain and Netherlands, rarely France), Gulf of Maine (to Long I, infrequently to South Carolina), Gulf of Alaska and British Columbia (casually Washington S to California), and sea of Japan (Hokaido); dispersal determined largely by ice conditions and food availability. In Atlantic two major migratory pathways, associated with Labrador current and E to W Greenland currents: birds from Arctic Canada and W Greenland move to S to E Newfoundland (shelf and Grand Banks) and Nova Scotia; those from European Arctic move SW towards Greenland, including Spitsbergen birds that reach both SW Greenland and Newfoundland waters and remain until Mar. In N Pacific, birds likely remain close to breeding areas except where ice condition interferes, with most wintering in C & S Bering Sea and fewer in Gulf of Alaska or Seas of Okhotsk and Japan; some regularly winter in E Chukchi Sea N to Cape Thompson and Point Hope, but most birds probably move SW to Bering Sea. Return begins in Mar, most birds back at colonies between mid-Apr and late May, sometimes later owing to late break-up of sea ice. Dispersal patterns poorly known in many regions, especially European Arctic and many parts of N Pacific.   (del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J (eds), 1996)

• digitised by GROMS, after del Hoyo J A Elliott; J Sargatal (eds) (1996) - www.hbw.com,
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