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Extent of migrations unclear (map highly conjectural). In Europe, most intermedia move S late Aug to Oct, migrants occurring all round Mediterranean and probably overflying N Africa to winter in sub-Saharan Africa, where distribution poorly known because of close resemblance to resident birds; presumed Palearctic birds obtained in Somalia in Sept, N Sudan in Apr and Sept-Oct, and Senegal in Nov and Jan, but Kenya occurrences referable to African breeding population; return passage mar-May, most returning migrants in N Africa being recorded Mar-Apr; returns to C Europe May. Migrants recorded Asia Minor, and birds of unknown origin winter in Iraq and Israel; occurs Oman Aug-Dec. African populations usually considered resident but at least local movements recorded in E, C and S Africa in response to seasonal habitat changes. Nominate birds winter to S of breeding range; migrants recorded in Azerbaijan, Apr; recorded once from Egypt; in Japan most occur May-Sept; regarded as winter visitor to Philippines and Sumatra, but recorded Philippines Aug, Oct, Jan and Mar-Jun, and probably breeds irregularly in Sumatra; local seasonal movements recorded in S Vietnam. Race palustris possibly migratory in Australia, where many disappear from S part of range Apr-Sept, probably migratory immatures recorded Northern Territory Jul, and some birds probably cross Torres Strait; erratic movements also recorded in response to vegetation changes, draught and flooding; sometimes hits lighthouses, bridges and buildings; vagrant to Macquarie I. Migratory status of races mira, mayri and affinis unknown.   (del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J (eds), 1996)

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