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In W Palearctic, resident or dispersive in S and extreme W, Partially migratory to migratory elsewhere, extent of movement increasing further to N & E. Almost wholly summer visitor to former USSR and Finland, while relatively few remain in N Scandinavia, N Germany and Poland in winter. N European birds winter S to Iberia, Italy, Balkans and N Africa. Autumn movements mainly SW from N Europe and S-SE from C Europe; main S movements Sept-Dec, juveniles dispersing from Jul; return passage Mar-May. British and French populations resident but both receive winter migrants from NW Europe. Palearctic birds of unknown origins winter (Nov- Mar) in sub-Saharan Africa, in Senegal, Gambia, Mali, N Nigeria, C Chad and N Sudan. Winter range of emigrant Russian birds, and extent of dispersal by near East birds, unknown. Passage noted Azerbaijan Mar-Apr and Oct-Nov. Numbers in India and Pakistan greatly augmented by winter visitors; passage noted Oct-and Mar- May; occurs Japan Mar-Oct. Race meridionalis resident, with some local movements in response to changing conditions; wanders to temporary pools. In North America most of E Population migratory, wintering along coast and S to Panama, West Indies and possibly South America; breeding migrants arrive Apr-Jun; some seasonal altitudinal movements occur in W populations (Arizona and New Mexico), and also some migration, extent of which unknown. Some seasonal movements noted in South America; winter migrants possibly occur Costa Rica, and Colombia Oct-Feb; presumed winter influx from S noted in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Success in colonizing high proportion of suitable, often scattered, habitats, indicates effective prospecting on wing, largely at night and in lower airspace. Accidental to Iceland, Spitsbergen and Sao Tomé; meridionalis vagrant to NE Chad.   (del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J (eds), 1996)

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