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Long distance migrant, with relatively few stopover sites. Race islandica, from Canada and W Greenland, crosses Greenland icecap, N Atlantic, often Iceland (probably not used by birds from Greenland), to NW Europe; some move down SW Norway and Denmark, mainly juveniles, only in autumn; spring migration more synchronized, passing through Iceland and N Norway. Race canutus probably has 3 migration routes: birds from Yaktia perhaps move overland to Gulf of Finland, through Baltic and W Europe to W Africa (mainly Banc d´Arguin, Mauritania) and S Africa; Taymyr population presumably halts in W Europe; N migration of both groups along same route, many also stopping over in W France; birds from New Siberian Is probably move down E coast of Asia to Australasia. Most rufa cross W Atlantic from NE North America to coast of the Guianas, whereafter most continue to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego; birds wintering in Florida traditionally ascribed to this race, but probably referable to roselaari; on way N, most birds stage at Delaware Bay. Race rogersi may perform loop migration to Australasia, moving S non-stop across W Pacific, via Sea of Okhotsk, and down E Asian coast (Shanghai and Korea); arrives in N Australia from late Aug, in New Zealand arrives from late Sept and departs late Mar to early Apr; possibly flies non-stop from NW & SE Australia to SE China. Migration route of roselaari not clear, but assumed to winter in W Florida, S Panama and N Venezuela. Adults depart breeding grounds before young. Degree of site fidelity to wintering grounds unclear. Many immatures remain in winter quarters all year.   (del Hoyo J, Elliott A, Sargatal J (eds), 1996)

• digitised by GROMS, after del Hoyo J A Elliott; J Sargatal (eds) (1996) - www.hbw.com,
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